Abstract

Indoor mould contamination persists as a critical public health challenge, particularly following water damage events precipitated by climate extremes, structural defects, inadequate ventilation, poor building design, aging infrastructure, and deferred maintenance. This review extends on prior work evaluating environmental and clinical thresholds for airborne fungal contamination. We reassess the continued relevance of the 1000 spores/m³ (or CFU/m³) threshold as a practical and evidence-based benchmark for indoor air quality assessment, especially with regard to health implications. However, for evaluating building conditions and identifying likely point sources of contamination, the indoor/outdoor (I/O) spore concentration ratio and changes in species profile are more diagnostically significant. An I/O ratio exceeding 2:1 or a shift in the expected species distribution is a strong indicator of indoor fungal amplification, even if absolute concentrations are below the 1000 threshold. Drawing on studies published since 2023, we confirm that environments exceeding 1000 CFU/m³ often correlate with visible or hidden mould contamination and adverse health outcomes, while unaffected environments fall below this level. Despite growing empirical and regulatory support, recent updates to key industry standards - including ANSI/IICRC S520 (2024) and S590 (2023) - increasingly frame quantitative sampling as optional rather than essential, favouring discretionary visual or subjective assessments that may lack objective verification. This shift risks enabling substandard remediation or assessment practices, undermining scientific and legal defensibility. We argue that quantifiable, objective sampling remains essential at all stages of mould investigation and remediation. While subjective site information can supplement assessments, it must not displace validated techniques like spore trap analysis, tape lifts, and viable culture for air and surface. This review reinforces the central role of the 1000 spores/m³ threshold as a health-screening tool and advocates its continued use alongside comparative OA data and I/O ratios to ensure robust, accountable, and health-protective mould assessment protocols.

Keywords

mould, fungi, spores, CFU, indoor air quality, thresholds, 1000 spores/m³, health risks, water damage, mycotoxins