Abstract

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) represents one of the most pressing global health threats, primarily driven by the overuse and misuse of antibiotics in healthcare, animal farming, and other sectors. The rapid emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogens has rendered many conventional antibiotics ineffective, creating an urgent need for alternative therapeutic strategies. In this context, the exploration of phytochemicals offers a promising and sustainable approach. These naturally occurring plant-derived compounds—such as curcumin, apigenin, ellagic acid, and thymol—have demonstrated broad-spectrum antimicrobial, anti-biofilm, and quorum-sensing inhibitory activities. Their mechanisms include disruption of microbial membranes, inhibition of virulence factors, and modulation of enzymatic pathways essential for bacterial survival and pathogenicity. Furthermore, recent advances in drug delivery systems have significantly enhanced the efficacy of these phytochemicals. Innovative formulations such as nano emulsions, liposomes, and polymeric nanoparticles improve their bioavailability, stability, and targeted delivery, overcoming traditional limitations like poor solubility and rapid metabolism. These nanocarrier-based systems not only enhance the potency of phytochemicals but also enable synergistic interactions with existing antibiotics, potentially restoring their activity against resistant strains. The review also provides insight into bacterial resistance mechanisms, including activation of efflux pumps, alteration, or loss of porin channels, and enzymatic degradation or modification of antibiotic molecules. Understanding these pathways is crucial for designing effective phytochemical-based interventions. In conclusion, this review underscores the therapeutic potential of phytochemicals as safe, eco-friendly, and potent alternatives to synthetic antibiotics. Integrating phytochemistry with nanotechnology can pave the way for novel antimicrobial strategies, offering a sustainable route to mitigate AMR and safeguard global health. Such interdisciplinary approaches are essential to develop next-generation therapeutics capable of addressing the growing burden of drug-resistant microbial infections.

Keywords

antimicrobial resistance (AMR), phytochemicals, drug delivery technologies, antibiotic resistance mechanisms